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Greenhouse gas emission trends in Slovakia

The inventory of greenhouse gas emissions (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O and F-gases), under the EU, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement, represents the annual balance of greenhouse gas emissions produced in the Slovak Republic. The inventory is prepared annually by 15 April, year-2, since 1990 (the base year for the Slovak Republic). Emissions are calculated by sectors - energy (including transport), industrial processes (IPPU), agriculture, land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) and waste. Greenhouse gas emission inventories are publicly available and can be found here, as well as on the EU and UNFCCC websites. Emissions of all greenhouse gases balanced in the Slovak Republic can be expressed in CO₂ equivalents (CO₂ eq.) after conversion using the global warming potential values (GWP).

The Slovak Republic provides information on anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and carbon sinks. The latest data are now included in CRT tables created using ETF software, to which a json file is attached. Summary data on emissions in GWP according to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) are provided in the National Inventory Document for the relevant year.

Total national greenhouse gas emissions in 2023 are estimated at 36 114.74 Gg CO₂ eq. excluding LULUCF and indirect emissions. This represents a reduction of 50.9% compared to the base year 1990. The decrease in total emissions compared to previous years was mainly caused by a decrease in the Energy and IPPU sectors. Emissions data also include indirect CO₂ emissions in the solvent category (IPPU), which in 2023 represented – 41.08 Gg CO₂ eq.

The main changes in the national inventory of greenhouse gas emissions are caused by recalculation in the fugitive emissions, agriculture and waste sectors for individual years or entire time series. In the entire monitored period, total greenhouse gas emissions in the Slovak Republic did not exceed the 1990 level. Emissions of F-gases, from the consumption of HFCs, PFCs and SF₆ in industry, are the only emissions with an increasing trend since 1990 (despite the decrease in PFCs emissions from aluminum production).

The reduction of emissions in Slovakia in recent years has been caused by a combination of various influences, starting with the impressive industrial and technological restructuring associated with the transition from fossil fuels, from coal and oil to natural gas (the main driving force has been air pollution legislation since 1991), the restructuring of the economy towards less energy-intensive production (especially in recent years) and also temporary changes in production intensity (under the influence of global and EU markets). Transport (especially road transport), emissions of which have been constantly growing in the past, have started to decline in recent years. There is also constant pressure in this sector to formulate an effective strategy and policy to achieve further emission reductions. For example, a combination of regulatory and economic instruments (tolls for trucks based on their environmental performance combined with fuel and emission standards for new cars). The motor vehicle tax system and the level of fuel taxation, which is close to the EU average, contribute to limiting the increase in greenhouse gas emissions in transport.

The main contributor to total greenhouse gas emissions is the energy sector (including transport). Transport also contributes significantly to the greenhouse gas budget in terms of total emissions, with the share of transport in total emissions decreasing slightly compared to previous years. In addition to fuel combustion in stationary sources of pollution, pollution from small sources of heating systems in households and fugitive methane emissions from the transport, processing and distribution of oil and natural gas also contribute significantly to total greenhouse gas emissions.

The second significant sector is the industrial processes and product use sector, which accounts for a significant share of total greenhouse gas emissions, and produces mainly technological emissions from the processing of mineral products, chemical production and steel and iron production. Reducing emissions from technological processes is very costly and there are specific technical limits, so emissions have not changed as significantly since the reference year as in other categories. The emissions are mainly influenced by the volume of production in industrial processes. Within the IPPU sector, HFC and SF6 emissions are growing the most due to industrial demand and the use of these substances in construction, building insulation, electrical engineering and/or the automotive industry.

The agricultural sector accounts for a small share of total greenhouse gas emissions, with a slightly decreasing trend in emissions since 1999. The most significant reduction in emissions from agriculture was achieved in the early 1990s due to a reduction in the number of livestock together with limited use of fertilizers.

The waste sector also accounts only for a small share of total greenhouse gas emissions. The use of a more accurate methodology for assessing methane emissions from solid waste disposal on-site and the inclusion of older layers in the calculation has led to a steady increase in emissions of more than 100% compared to the base year 1990. A similar trend is expected to continue in the coming years, although the increase should not be as significant as before. The volume of emissions from landfills depends mainly on the methodology used to assess landfills and on the extent to which landfill gas is used for energy recovery by landfill operators.

Air pollutants emission trends in Slovakia

The air pollutant inventory is an annual balance of the amount of emissions of individual air pollutants that have been released into the air from all stationary, surface and mobile sources in the Slovak Republic. Emission data are reported in mass units for the period since 1990, with the latest data being two years old. The relevant emission inventory report must be submitted by 15 March of year X-2. The structure of the provided data copies the standardized international Nomenclature For Reporting - NFR, which currently defines 127 different categories under which emissions are reported. The data include anthropogenic activities divided into individual activity groups.

The nomenclature has a multi-level tree structure, based on which the individual categories can be grouped into larger units, such as sectors, for the purposes of evaluation, comparison and summary statistics.

One of the most important sources of data for the final inventory preparation is the National Emission Information System (NEIS). NEIS provides detailed data from operators of air pollution sources. Direct emission data from sources are processed in accordance with reporting requirements. Another important source of input data is the Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic. Input statistical data are updated annually and, if necessary, revised back to the base year 1990, in line with the principles mentioned above. Emissions are calculated using the international EMEP/EEA guidebook or national methodologies.

The main source of NOx emissions is road transport, which shows a stable but only slowly decreasing trend. Emissions of NMVOC, CO, and particulate matter are mainly released from household heating using solid fuels, particularly wood. SOx emissions show a steadily decreasing trend up to 2014. Since 1990, SOx emissions have fallen sharply due to strict air protection legislation. In 2015, a significant increase in SOx emissions was recorded, primarily originating from Slovenské elektrárne (SE). According to NEIS records, the ENO 0023 B units 3 and 4 power plant burned twice as much brown coal as in 2014. During the extensive reconstruction of ENO B1 and B2, separation technologies were used, but ENO K1 and K2 were not equipped with emission control technologies, so no emission limits were applied. Consequently, emissions dropped sharply again in 2016.

The overall trend of ammonia (NH3) emissions decreased steadily from 1990 until 2011. In the following years up to 2015, a slight increase was observed, mainly driven by a rise in livestock numbers and greater use of inorganic fertilizers. Livestock and the application of inorganic fertilizers are key categories responsible for over 60% of total ammonia emissions. Both remain major contributors throughout the time series.

Emissions of heavy metals and POPs have generally shown a downward trend, mainly due to the introduction of emission limits and the subsequent installation of separation equipment at major sources. The main contributors are the energy industry and metal production.

NOx emission trends

Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) emissions show a long-term decreasing trend, with no exceedances of the emission ceilings set by Directive 2001/81/EC (NEC) for the period after 2010. Compared to 2005, NOₓ emissions have decreased by 42%, meaning that Slovakia meets its national reduction commitment for the 2020–2029 period set by Directive (EU) 2016/2284. The most significant source of NOₓ emissions remains road transport, where emissions are slightly decreasing, but the trend remains stable and declines slowly.

NMVOC emission trends

Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) have shown a decreasing trend throughout the entire time series, with the most notable drop occurring between 1990 and 2000. The main source of NMVOC emissions in Slovakia are small combustion units in households. The decline during 1990–2000 was primarily due to reduced energy consumption in households as a result of home renovations and increased boiler efficiency. Slovakia currently meets both the reduction commitments set in NEC Directive 2016/2284/EU for the 2020–2029 period and from 2030 onwards.

SOx emission trends

SOx emissions show a steadily decreasing trend from 1990 until 2014. This decline resulted from stricter air protection legislation. However, in 2015 emissions increased significantly due to the activities of Slovenské Elektrárne (Slovak Power Plants). According to NEIS records, the power plant ENO 0023 B-blocks 3 and 4 burned twice as much brown coal as in previous year 2014. Due to extensive reconstruction of blocks B1 and B2 ENO (from the SE report), emission control technologies were not used, and ENO K1 and K2 were not equipped with separation technologies, so no emission limits were applied. Emissions then significantly decreased again in 2016. From 1990 to 2017, the main source of SOₓ emissions was energy production. Since 2018, metal production has been the main source. Slovakia currently meets both reduction commitments set in NEC Directive 2016/2284/EU.

NH3 emission trends

The overall trend of ammonia (NH₃) emissions in Slovakia from 1990 to 2011 showed a steady decrease. However, between 2012 and 2015, there was a slight increase in emissions. The main factors behind the increase in emissions were the increased number of livestock and more intensive use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers on agricultural land. These two activities represent key sources of ammonia emissions in the Slovak emission inventory. Slovakia currently meets the NH₃ emission ceiling set for 2010 under Directive 2001/81/EC of the European Parliament and Council on national emission ceilings (NEC).

Particulate matter and CO emission trends

The emission trend of particulate matter is strongly influenced by emissions in the Residential Combustion category. This category is a key source of particulate matter, with emissions tied to the energy consumption of households, which is influenced by several factors, such as climatic conditions, building renovations, etc. The most significant emission decrease occurred from 1990 to 2000. Since then, emissions have fluctuated slightly depending on heating season conditions and household energy demand. Slovakia currently meets both national reduction commitments for PM2.5 emissions set by Directive 2016/2284/EU for the periods 2020–2029 and post-2030.

Particulate matter and CO emission trends

The emission trend of particulate matter is strongly influenced by emissions in the Residential Combustion category. This category is a key source of particulate matter, with emissions tied to the energy consumption of households, which is influenced by several factors, such as climatic conditions, building renovations, etc. The most significant emission decrease occurred from 1990 to 2000. Since then, emissions have fluctuated slightly depending on heating season conditions and household energy demand. Slovakia currently meets both national reduction commitments for PM2.5 emissions set by Directive 2016/2284/EU for the periods 2020–2029 and post-2030.

Particulate matter and CO emission trends

The emission trend of particulate matter is strongly influenced by emissions in the Residential Combustion category. This category is a key source of particulate matter, with emissions tied to the energy consumption of households, which is influenced by several factors, such as climatic conditions, building renovations, etc. The most significant emission decrease occurred from 1990 to 2000. Since then, emissions have fluctuated slightly depending on heating season conditions and household energy demand. Slovakia currently meets both national reduction commitments for PM2.5 emissions set by Directive 2016/2284/EU for the periods 2020–2029 and post-2030.

Particulate matter and CO emission trends

The emission trend of particulate matter is strongly influenced by emissions in the Residential Combustion category. This category is a key source of particulate matter, with emissions tied to the energy consumption of households, which is influenced by several factors, such as climatic conditions, building renovations, etc. The most significant emission decrease occurred from 1990 to 2000. Since then, emissions have fluctuated slightly depending on heating season conditions and household energy demand. Slovakia currently meets both national reduction commitments for PM2.5 emissions set by Directive 2016/2284/EU for the periods 2020–2029 and post-2030.

Particulate matter and CO emission trends

The emission trend of particulate matter is strongly influenced by emissions in the Residential Combustion category. This category is a key source of particulate matter, with emissions tied to the energy consumption of households, which is influenced by several factors, such as climatic conditions, building renovations, etc. The most significant emission decrease occurred from 1990 to 2000. Since then, emissions have fluctuated slightly depending on heating season conditions and household energy demand. Slovakia currently meets both national reduction commitments for PM2.5 emissions set by Directive 2016/2284/EU for the periods 2020–2029 and post-2030.

Heavy metals emission trends

Emissions of heavy metals in Slovakia have generally declined since 1990, as a result of modernization of technologies, stricter legislation, the decline of energy-intensive industrial sectors, and modernization of household combustion equipment. International commitments, such as the Aarhus Protocol under CLRTAP, which sets emission limits for lead, cadmium, and mercury, have also played a significant role.

Lead (Pb) emission trends

Lead emissions generally show a slightly fluctuating trend. In 2001, emissions decreased due to the phase-out of leaded gasoline in transport. Another significant drop occurred in 2007 due to stricter regulations and emission limits for large sources. Further decline in 2009 was linked to the economic crisis. Since 2001, the main contributor to Pb emissions has been iron and steel production, previously it was energy production. The Aarhus Protocol requires parties not to exceed emission levels of the reference year (1990). Slovakia has not exceeded these levels.

Heavy metals emission trends

Emissions of heavy metals in Slovakia have generally declined since 1990, as a result of modernization of technologies, stricter legislation, the decline of energy-intensive industrial sectors, and modernization of household combustion equipment. International commitments, such as the Aarhus Protocol under CLRTAP, which sets emission limits for lead, cadmium, and mercury, have also played a significant role.

Cadmium (Cd) emission trends

Cadmium emissions have been declining since 1992. The largest drop occurred in 2003 when municipal waste incinerators installed emission control technologies. Since 2004, the main contributing categories have been residential heating and pulp and paper production, both characterized by widespread biomass use as fuel.

Heavy metals emission trends

Emissions of heavy metals in Slovakia have generally declined since 1990, as a result of modernization of technologies, stricter legislation, the decline of energy-intensive industrial sectors, and modernization of household combustion equipment. International commitments, such as the Aarhus Protocol under CLRTAP, which sets emission limits for lead, cadmium, and mercury, have also played a significant role.

Mercury (Hg) emission trends

The emission trend for mercury has generally been declining. Since 2009, the trend has remained stable. Until 2006, energy production was the main source, especially municipal waste incineration with energy recovery. After that year, both Slovak municipal waste incinerators installed emission reduction technologies, significantly lowering mercury emissions.

Heavy metals emission trends

Emissions of heavy metals in Slovakia have generally declined since 1990, as a result of modernization of technologies, stricter legislation, the decline of energy-intensive industrial sectors, and modernization of household combustion equipment. International commitments, such as the Aarhus Protocol under CLRTAP, which sets emission limits for lead, cadmium, and mercury, have also played a significant role.

Arsenic (As) emission trends

Arsenic emissions have significantly decreased since 1990 until 2003, due to the modernization of residential combustion technologies and the gradual phase-out of brown coal combustion. The current main source is the industrial sector, particularly iron and steel production.

Heavy metals emission trends

Emissions of heavy metals in Slovakia have generally declined since 1990, as a result of modernization of technologies, stricter legislation, the decline of energy-intensive industrial sectors, and modernization of household combustion equipment. International commitments, such as the Aarhus Protocol under CLRTAP, which sets emission limits for lead, cadmium, and mercury, have also played a significant role.

Chromium (Cr) emission trends

Chromium emissions have decreased compared to 1990 due to technological changes in the energy and industrial sectors. The fluctuating trend is associated with residential combustion and changes in copper production.

Heavy metals emission trends

Emissions of heavy metals in Slovakia have generally declined since 1990, as a result of modernization of technologies, stricter legislation, the decline of energy-intensive industrial sectors, and modernization of household combustion equipment. International commitments, such as the Aarhus Protocol under CLRTAP, which sets emission limits for lead, cadmium, and mercury, have also played a significant role.

Copper (Cu) emission trends

The main source of copper emissions is the transport sector, so the emission increase in 2013 is mainly due to changes in methodology in the transport sector. Compared to 1990, copper emissions in the industry sector have declined due to modernization of technologies.

Heavy metals emission trends

Emissions of heavy metals in Slovakia have generally declined since 1990, as a result of modernization of technologies, stricter legislation, the decline of energy-intensive industrial sectors, and modernization of household combustion equipment. International commitments, such as the Aarhus Protocol under CLRTAP, which sets emission limits for lead, cadmium, and mercury, have also played a significant role.

Nickel (Ni), Selenium (Se) and Zinc (Zn) emission trends

Emissions of nickel, selenium, and zinc show a decreasing trend due to technological changes in the energy and industrial sectors. The increase in zinc emissions after 2013 was due to a change in methodology in the transport sector.

Heavy metals emission trends

Emissions of heavy metals in Slovakia have generally declined since 1990, as a result of modernization of technologies, stricter legislation, the decline of energy-intensive industrial sectors, and modernization of household combustion equipment. International commitments, such as the Aarhus Protocol under CLRTAP, which sets emission limits for lead, cadmium, and mercury, have also played a significant role.

Nickel (Ni), Selenium (Se) and Zinc (Zn) emission trends

Emissions of nickel, selenium, and zinc show a decreasing trend due to technological changes in the energy and industrial sectors. The increase in zinc emissions after 2013 was due to a change in methodology in the transport sector.

Heavy metals emission trends

Emissions of heavy metals in Slovakia have generally declined since 1990, as a result of modernization of technologies, stricter legislation, the decline of energy-intensive industrial sectors, and modernization of household combustion equipment. International commitments, such as the Aarhus Protocol under CLRTAP, which sets emission limits for lead, cadmium, and mercury, have also played a significant role.

Nickel (Ni), Selenium (Se) and Zinc (Zn) emission trends

Emissions of nickel, selenium, and zinc show a decreasing trend due to technological changes in the energy and industrial sectors. The increase in zinc emissions after 2013 was due to a change in methodology in the transport sector.

Persistent organic pollutant (POPs) emission trends

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) include polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs are further divided into benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P], benzo(b)fluoranthene [B(b)F], benzo(k)fluoranthene [B(k)F], and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene [I()P]. POPs also include hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

PCDD/PCDF emission trends

Emissions of PCDD and PCDF dropped in 2003 and 2006 due to technological improvements in facilities burning municipal waste for energy. Since 2006, emissions have shown a slightly increasing trend due to Slovakia’s waste management policy, which prioritizes waste incineration over landfilling. Major contributors include residential combustion, metal production, energy production (including municipal waste incineration with energy recovery), and waste incineration without energy recovery (e.g., industrial and clinical waste incineration). After Slovakia signed the Aarhus Protocol under CLRTAP, no exceedances were recorded.

Persistent organic pollutant (POPs) emission trends

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) include polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs are further divided into benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P], benzo(b)fluoranthene [B(b)F], benzo(k)fluoranthene [B(k)F], and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene [I()P]. POPs also include hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

PAH emission trends (benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene)

The most significant decrease in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emissions was recorded between 1990 and 2000. Since then, emissions have fluctuated slightly, influenced primarily by heating methods and industrial technologies. The current main sources of PAHs emissions are residential combustion and metal production.

The Aarhus Protocol on POPs (under CLRTAP) requires that parties do not exceed reference year (1990) emission levels for selected substances, including heavy metals and PAHs. Slovakia has not exceeded these emission limits and has consistently met the protocol obligations.

Persistent organic pollutant (POPs) emission trends

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) include polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs are further divided into benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P], benzo(b)fluoranthene [B(b)F], benzo(k)fluoranthene [B(k)F], and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene [I()P]. POPs also include hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

PAH emission trends (benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene)

The most significant decrease in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emissions was recorded between 1990 and 2000. Since then, emissions have fluctuated slightly, influenced primarily by heating methods and industrial technologies. The current main sources of PAHs emissions are residential combustion and metal production.

The Aarhus Protocol on POPs (under CLRTAP) requires that parties do not exceed reference year (1990) emission levels for selected substances, including heavy metals and PAHs. Slovakia has not exceeded these emission limits and has consistently met the protocol obligations.

Persistent organic pollutant (POPs) emission trends

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) include polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs are further divided into benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P], benzo(b)fluoranthene [B(b)F], benzo(k)fluoranthene [B(k)F], and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene [I()P]. POPs also include hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

PAH emission trends (benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene)

The most significant decrease in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emissions was recorded between 1990 and 2000. Since then, emissions have fluctuated slightly, influenced primarily by heating methods and industrial technologies. The current main sources of PAHs emissions are residential combustion and metal production.

The Aarhus Protocol on POPs (under CLRTAP) requires that parties do not exceed reference year (1990) emission levels for selected substances, including heavy metals and PAHs. Slovakia has not exceeded these emission limits and has consistently met the protocol obligations.

Persistent organic pollutant (POPs) emission trends

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) include polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs are further divided into benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P], benzo(b)fluoranthene [B(b)F], benzo(k)fluoranthene [B(k)F], and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene [I()P]. POPs also include hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

PAH emission trends (benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene)

The most significant decrease in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emissions was recorded between 1990 and 2000. Since then, emissions have fluctuated slightly, influenced primarily by heating methods and industrial technologies. The current main sources of PAHs emissions are residential combustion and metal production.

The Aarhus Protocol on POPs (under CLRTAP) requires that parties do not exceed reference year (1990) emission levels for selected substances, including heavy metals and PAHs. Slovakia has not exceeded these emission limits and has consistently met the protocol obligations.

Persistent organic pollutant (POPs) emission trends

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) include polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs are further divided into benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P], benzo(b)fluoranthene [B(b)F], benzo(k)fluoranthene [B(k)F], and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene [I()P]. POPs also include hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

HCB emission trends

The main source of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) emissions is hazardous waste incineration, which accounts for over 80% of total HCB emissions. Therefore, the fluctuating HCB emission trend is related to the quantity of hazardous waste incinerated.

Persistent organic pollutant (POPs) emission trends

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) include polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs are further divided into benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P], benzo(b)fluoranthene [B(b)F], benzo(k)fluoranthene [B(k)F], and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene [I()P]. POPs also include hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

PCBs emission trends

PCB emissions show a fluctuating trend due to changes in industrial iron and steel production. This activity is a key source of PCB emissions. The second key category is hazardous waste incineration.